Population Numbers
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--Nichole Hoskin 21:11, 27 June 2008 (EST)
*any reference to 'kangaroos' in this section is a reference to the commercially harvested species, including Red Kangaroos, Western Grey Kangaroos and Eastern Grey Kangaroos, and Common Wallaroos, unless otherwise specified*
Contents |
The Conservation Status of Kangaroos
Bridled Nailtail (Onychogalea fraenata), photographed by Phil Cole in Scotia National Park, NSW
There are some species of kangaroos that are endangered or extinct (table 1).[1] However, Pople and Grigg describ species such as the Red kangaroo, the Eastern grey kangaroo, the Western grey kangaroo and the Common Wallaroo, in their report for Environment Australia, as being “now among the most abundant large mammals anywhere.”[2] Since some species are abundant while others are endangered or extinct, it is necessary to avoid making general statements about the conservation status of kangaroos.
Table 1. See: Table 1 in Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia.
•Potorous gilbertii (Gilbert's Potoroo) Advise to the Minister of Environment
†Macropodoid Species listed as endangered or extinct by the Australian Conservation Foundation, Macropodoid Species, Policy Statement No. 40
Bridled Nailtail (Onychogalea fraenata), photographed by Phil Cole in Scotia National Park, NSW
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) enables consistency when comparing protected species across Australia through the allocation and use of an internationally defined set of management categories.[3] The IUCN produced the Mammal Red Data Book that listed ‘known threatened mammals’ under categories, including extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate and out of danger. Interestingly, these lists do not include Red kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos and Common Wallaroos.[4]
The 1996 Action Plan for Australian Marsupials and Monotremes, prepared for the Australian Marsupials and Monotreme Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, listed the Red kangaroo, the Eastern grey kangaroo, the Western grey kangaroo and the Common Wallaroo as ‘Lower Risk’ and of ‘least concern’.[5] The category of 'Lower Risk' is the lowest category under the IUCN categories, as used in the 1996 Action Plan for Australian Marsupials and Monotremes.[6] ‘Lower Risk’ means that the species (taxon) does not meet the criteria for categories such as Critically endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable.[7] Within the category of ‘Lower Risk’, there are sub-categories of conservation dependent, near threatened or least concern.[8] In the category of least concern are species (taxa) that do not qualify for conservation dependent or near threatened.[9] These classifications suggest that there is no current adverse affect to the extent that these species are threatened or endangered of Red kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos and the Common Wallaroos.
In addition to the IUCN classifications, when listing endangered or extinct macropodoid species, the Australian Conservation Foundation does not list Red kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos and Common wallaroos as endangered or extinct. While not specifically stating the conservation status of the four larger species of kangaroos, according to the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), there are 48 valid species of macropodoid marsupials (there are 55 species, according to DEWHA),[10] with five considered extinct and the remaining 43 ranging from rare to abundant.[11] Strahan’s 1995 review of the conservation status of kangaroos concluded that Red kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos and Common Wallaroos are abundant.[12] Thus, it appears that there is a general agreement on the conservation status of Red kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos and Common Wallaroos, with the conclusion that these species are abundant, not endangered or extinct.[13]
CITES: Classification and Protection of Endangered Species in International Law
--Nichole Hoskin 21:11, 27 June 2008 (EST)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement to regulate trade in wild fauna and flora arising from an acknowledgment that international trade in wild plants and animals had led to traded species becoming endangered or extinct.[14] CITES operates to establish a worldwide system of controls, through permits for trade in threatened wildlife and wildlife products. CITES involves classifying species into three Appendices based on their conservation status and the risk posed by trade.[15]
Inclusion on a CITES Appendix occurs after a State party nominates a species native to it’s territories for listing in order to protect that species from international trade. Such a system assumes that it is in the interest of States to protect their native species of plants and animals and maintains the discretion of States that are parties to the CITES since States are able to control which species are included. However, this assumption is arguably warranted since the Australian Government has acted to list native species in CITES Appendices and has utilised CITES to protect native species that are at risk from international trade (see Table 2).
Category II: includes specimens listed on CITES Appendix II, with the prospect of commercial importation if they have been artificially propagated, or breed in captivity, or the specimen comes from an approved Commercial Import Programme (CIP). (See, Regulation of Commercial Harvesting for details on CITES and Australian law)
United States Fish and Wildlife Services (USFWS) Views
--Nichole Hoskin 21:11, 27 June 2008 (EST)
Despite the general agreement that the three largest species of kangaroos are abundant, on the 30th of December 1974, the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) listed the Red kangaroo, Eastern grey kangaroo and Western grey kangaroo as ‘threatened’ under the U.S Endangered Species Act.[16] The U.S Endangered Species Act lists species that are ‘threatened’ or ‘endangered’, including animals that are native to the territory of other States. The Endangered Species Act operates with a two-tier system of classifying species as ‘endangered’ or ‘threatened’, with flexibility so that special rules can apply for threatened species.[17] This listing occurred because of the effects of a prolonged drought on populations and the unregulated exploitation of these species.[18] The effect of this listing was to impose a ban on the importation of kangaroo products into the U.S.[19] The USFWS stated, “It would lift the ban when it determined that Australia had implemented an effective management programme, including control of trade so that it would not be detrimental to overall kangaroo populations.”[20]
In 1981, the USFWS decided to lift the 6-year ban on U.S commercial trade in kangaroos after conducting a 1-year review. According to the USFWS, the basis of this decision was “evidence that the three largest kangaroo species had reached healthy numbers and were being properly managed in Australia.”[21] The USFWS relied on “the most reliable data available to the service”, which found that there were more than 32 million adult kangaroos in Australia.[22] There was also evidence that the Australia’s Federal Government and the Government’s of the four States that “expected to export kangaroo hides to the U.S” had implemented integrated management programmes.[23] This decision had the effect that “the three kangaroo species—the red and eastern and western grey—will continue to be classified as ‘threatened’, a less serious category than endangered status”, which enabled the re-introduction of commercial trade bans if “problems arise”.[24]
In 1982, the Australia Government petitioned for the removal of three kangaroo species from the U.S Endangered and Threatened Species List, which led the Interior Department’s USFWS to propose the removal of these species from the U.S Endangered and Threatened Species List.[25] However, in 1984, the USFWS withdrew its removal proposal because data indicated a drop from 19 million to between 10 and 12 million kangaroos caused by the worst recorded drought in the country’s history in 1982 and 1983.[26] This action had the effect of maintaining the listing of these species as ‘threatened’, which indicates that the species faced less severe problems than species listed as ‘endangered’. [27] It is unclear whether the three species of kangaroos listed as ‘threatened’ were at risk, considering that the USFWS acknowledged that Australian Government’s had responded to drops in kangaroo populations by reducing the numbers of kangaroos culled under both the commercial harvesting and pest-control programmes, which is arguably effective regulation to ensure that culls and harvesting is sustainable.[28] (See,Commercial Harvest,Commercial Harvesting Quotas)
In April 1983, the USFWS proposed to continue allowing imports and to delist the three species. Despite withdrawing the proposal to delist the species because of the droughts effects on the kangaroo populations, the USFWS subsequently published a rule allowing imports to continue.[29] While the USFWS was initially concerned about declines in Australian kangaroo populations because of widespread drought in Australia, according to the USFWS, “by 1987, the combined population estimates for the three species had essentially returned to the pre-drought numbers of over 18 million.”[30] Thus, the USFWS acknowledged that despite declines in kangaroo populations during periods of drought, since the USFWS had evidence that populations rebounded when rainfall re-commenced.[31]
In 1989, Greenpeace America petitioned for the reinstating of the importation ban on kangaroo products on the basis that management of kangaroos by Australian Government’s was not effective and population data was inadequate.[32] In response to this petition, the USFWS issued a report, Review of Kangaroo Management in Australia (March 1990), based on an extensive fact-finding trip by experts to the four States to determine whether Australian management plans were adequate.[33] The report indicated that “many kangaroo populations appear healthy, and recommends consideration be given to removing these species from the list of threatened species protected under the Endangered Species Act.”[34] This finding supports the position of the Australian Government that the Red kangaroo, the Eastern grey kangaroo and the Western grey kangaroo were not endangered or threatened, with the exception of a subspecies of the Eastern grey kangaroo which both the Australian Government and the U.S Government.[35]
In 1993, the USFWS again proposed to remove the three species from the list of endangered and threatened species. The basis of this proposal was improved management plans by Australian Governments, “which should guarantee the continued well-being of the animals throughout their present range.”[36] According to the USFWS Director John Turner, “Australia has developed excellent plans to address kangaroo management and provide for the long-term survival of healthy populations.”[37] The basis of these statements included recognition that “the purpose of kangaroo conservation in Australia is to maintain viable populations throughout the species range while minimising adverse impacts high concentrations of the animals could have on land used for farming or grazing.”[38]
In relation to Australia’s commercial harvesting under kangaroo management programmes, the USFWS found that harvesting quotas are “based on population info, habitat conditions, and the estimated amount of damage control necessary to protect agricultural and pastoral interests. The numbers harvested must not adversely impact the continued welfare of the species.”[39] This means that the USFWS found that harvest quotas were designed to balance the need to maintain the presence of kangaroos on the Australian landscape while also stopping damage caused by overpopulation of kangaroos.
In addition to Australian Governments management programmes, the USFWS also pointed to the protection available in National Parks and Reserves, “which include about 5% of the country’s total land area. The kangaroo population now may well exceed that of the population present before Australia was settled by Europeans.”[40]
Given the views of the USFWS, it is unsurprising that in 1995, the U.S Govt delisted the Red Kangaroos, the Eastern grey kangaroo and the Western grey kangaroo on the basis that these species had “recovered enough to be removed from listing under the Endangered Species Act”.[41] Thus, despite initially listing the Red kangaroos, the Eastern grey kangaroo and the Western grey kangaroo as ‘threatened’, the U.S Government delisted these species because of the acknowledgment that Australian Governments have excellent management programmes in place. The USFWS also acknowledged that Australian Governments are working to balance the competing interests of maintaining the presence of kangaroos on the Australian landscape while also limiting the damage caused by overpopulation of kangaroos to farming land. Since USFWS relied on evidence from expert examinations of Australia’s management of kangaroos, it is arguable that these views are authoritative.
Kangaroo Populations in Harvesting Areas
--Nichole Hoskin 21:11, 27 June 2008 (EST)
Over the last 25 years in harvesting areas, conservative estimates suggest the population size of Red kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos and Western grey kangaroos has fluctuated between 15 and 50 million animals, depending on seasonal conditions.[42] However, the Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts cautions “the actual national populations would be significantly higher as these figures do not include estimates for areas not surveyed”, i.e., areas outside of the commercial harvest areas.[43]
Table 3 'Kangaroo Population estimates in commercial harvesting areas'
The primary environmental factor that affects kangaroo population size in arid or semi-arid zone kangaroos is rainfall, as illustrated by the overall decline in kangaroo numbers during the recent severe drought.[44] Evidence suggests that when there is deteriorating environmental conditions, Red Kangaroos, Eastern grey kangaroos, Western grey kangaroos and Common wallaroo populations, throughout Australia, are likely to show:
1. Increased juvenile mortality rate
2. Delayed sexual maturity
3. Reduced fecundity
4. Increased adult mortality[45]
While there is increased juvenile mortality in times of deteriorating environmental conditions, Pople and Grigg caution that the “juvenile survival rate has been identified as the poorest and most variable of all kangaroo population classes.”[46] In addition to the likely signs of deterioration of the environmental conditions, there appears to be a strong male bias in mortality during drought, with declines in the male proportion of population during drought.[47] The causes of higher mortality for males during drought appears to be the higher energy costs associated with larger body size, higher growth rates and greater ranging.[48]
It is also possible for changes in the population composition, such as age and sex ratios, to affect fluctuations in kangaroo populations.[49] According to Pople and Grigg, populations with fewer juveniles and males will have higher rates of increase.[50]
For information on kangaroo populations prior to 2001, Background Information, Kangaroo Industry Association Australia, pp 3-4, by John Kelly, Director of Lenah Games Meats in Launceston, Tasmania and Executive Officer of Kangaroo Industry Association of Australia
References
1. Calaby and Griggs, 1989, Table 1: Australian Macropodoidea, their conservation status, likely change since white settlement and suggested reasons for the change, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts
2. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 1, p 1.
3. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, ‘Six IUCN Protected Area Categories’, p 1.
4. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
5. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
6. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
7. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
8. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
9. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
10. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Background Information: Commercial Kangaroo and Wallaby Harvest Quotas, p 1.
11. Australian Conservation Foundation, Macropodoid Species: Policy Statement No. 40, p 1.
12. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
13. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 13, p 2.
14. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), p 1.
15. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), p 1.
16. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
17. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
18. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
19. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
20. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, pp 1-2.
21. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
22. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 2.
23. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 2.
24. Department of Interior, Press Release April 28 1981, ‘Trade Ban Lifted on Kangaroos’, p 1.
25. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, April 28, 1984, ‘Interior Department Withdraws Proposal to Remove Kangaroos From Endangered Species List: Cites Recent Declines in Australian Populations’, p 1.
26. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, April 28, 1984, ‘Interior Department Withdraws Proposal to Remove Kangaroos From Endangered Species List: Cites Recent Declines in Australian Populations’, p 1.
27. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, April 28, 1984, ‘Interior Department Withdraws Proposal to Remove Kangaroos From Endangered Species List: Cites Recent Declines in Australian Populations’, p 1.
28. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, April 28, 1984, ‘Interior Department Withdraws Proposal to Remove Kangaroos From Endangered Species List: Cites Recent Declines in Australian Populations’, p 2.
29. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, August 15, 1990, ‘U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Initiates Kangaroo Status Review’, p 2.
30. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, August 15, 1990, ‘U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Initiates Kangaroo Status Review’, p 2.
31. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, April 28, 1984, ‘Interior Department Withdraws Proposal to Remove Kangaroos From Endangered Species List: Cites Recent Declines in Australian Populations’, p 2.
32. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, August 15, 1990,‘U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Initiates Kangaroo Status Review’, p 1.
33. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 2.
34. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, August 15, 1990, ‘U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Initiates Kangaroo Status Review’, p 1.
35. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, August 15, 1990, ‘U.S Fish and Wildlife Service Initiates Kangaroo Status Review’, p 2.
36. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 2.
37. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 2.
38. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 2.
39. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 2.
40. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, January 26, 1993, ‘Three Australian Kangaroo Species Proposed for Removal From Endangered Species List’, p 3.
41. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, News Release, February 1, 2001,‘A Conservation Success Story: the Dramatic Recovery of the Aleutian Canada Goose’, p 3.
42. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, , Background Information: Commercial Kangaroo and Wallaby Harvest Quotas, p 2.
43. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 10, p 2.
44. Environment Australia, in Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 10, p 4.
45. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 2.
46. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 2.
47. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 2.
48. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 2.
49. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 1.
50. Tony Pople and Gordon Grigg, Commercial Harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Chapter 6, p 1.
Related Links
Regulation of Commercial Harvesting
